Retaining Tomorrows Scientists :: Education Learning Gender Essays

Retaining Tomorrow's Scientists I chose to summarize the article "Retaining Tomorrow's Scientists". This article described a study done on differences between men and women enrolled in scientific curriculums in college. It looked at how individual characteristics, experiences, and goals affected a person's success rate in graduating. It also explained why women are not as successful as men in completing their science education. For starters, the study showed that women don't seem to be as interested in math and science courses in school. Studies show that boys and girls show equal capabilities in these courses while in elementary school. Girls, however, don't show much interest in them. Therefore, they take less of these courses in junior and senior high school. This in turn leads to lower rates of women taking these classes at a college level. Because they don't have the basic knowledge of these subjects, they are reluctant to major in scientific areas. Confidence also plays a major part in women choosing a major. By not taking these classes in high school, women feel that they aren't smart enough to select a scientific major. It was shown in this study that "Émath self-confidence is the most influential predictor of women's SAT scores, as well as of their decision to pursue math and science fields in college"(Sax, 46). Another reason that women are reluctant is the so-called "glass ceiling." It has long been known that women earn less than men, and aren't promoted as quickly. This is true in the laboratory as well as the office. Lastly, women are often forced to choose between the workplace and the home. Most scientific jobs demand long days and a lot of travel. Women realize this, and it interferes with their desire to have children and a home. Though men are also affected, it seems to be easier for men to make that choice. As with any scientific study, there are uncontrollable variables. The variables involved in this study were separated into blocks. Individual characteristics were classified as "É race, citizenship, parents' education, family income, religion, SAT scores, high school academic information, high school activities, reasons for coming to college, degree aspirations, life goals, views, personality types, and expectations about college"( Sax, 49). The second set of characteristics dealt with students' intended majors. Since everyone's college experience is so different, scientists had to figure in environmental variables, also. These variables were also classified into blocks. The first dealt with financial aid and living arrangements.

Graffiti Art Essay

In the late 1960s’s, another art genre was recognized and developed although its lack of form and other basic aesthetic elements has been once a topic of debates as regard its acceptance in the artistic world. Obviously, it differs from the works of art found in museums and galleries and its kind are not found in those elite locations because its location is specific. The location of graffiti art has been actually a subject of oppositions as well as its bold, unexpected and unconventional presentation. Although still, its location, may it be illegal, does not disqualify it as art. Thus, graffiti art is a form of art despite criticisms on its legality, coherence and presentation. It is also argued that graffiti art is a form of vandalism, but this is true only if they appeared on private or public property without permission. Graffiti art is indeed another genre of visual masterpiece. Graffiti comes from â€Å"grafficar†, an Italian word for drawings, markings, patterns, scribbles, or messages that are painted, written, or carved on a wall or surface. Graffiti is the plural of grafficar. Grafficar also signifies a process meaning â€Å"to scratch†. Examples of which are different wall writings ranging from â€Å"cave paintings†, bathroom scribbles, or any message that is scratched on walls. In the ancient Egypt and Rome, in particular, graffiti has been visible in monuments and building walls which are now being explored. It is originally used to term inscriptions, figure drawings, and other carvings found on the walls of ancient sepulchers or ruins. Examples are the Catacombs, or those found at Pompeii. (Whitford, 1992. pp. 137) In the modern era, present day graffiti is also associated to any unsolicited markings on a private or public property, usually considered to be vandalism. In the early 1970s young New Yorkers has started to adopt tags, signatures and signs using aerosol sprays and markers in public places. The youngsters, belonging to the black and Puerto Rican communities have initiated the tagging which eventually developed and soon covered the city’s walls, buses and obviously in subway trains. Tags even cover the entire train. Some may contain screen names or reflections of the writer, comes in subtle and often cryptic messages. Taki, an artist of Greek-American descent, was the first modern identified tagger in New York. He signed himself Taki 183, the number probably derived from the number in his apartment block. Some names also made their appearances in some real urban murals painted with spray-paint. Tags such as Futura 2000, Dust and Pink gained fame and recognition in the world of hip-hops. There were also Basquiat and Haring who also started to work in the street and the subway but their works swiftly spread beyond the works of graffiti. Their works attracted the attention of influential dealers which put them in great demand although their works were considered one of the rare forms of graffiti art. (Graffiti†¦ 2007, p. 1) Tagging and graffiti differs from each other although arguments about this difference still arise. Tagging is associated negatively as gang-motivated and illegal because it is usually meant as vandalism. It is also viewed as too vulgar or controversial to have public value. On the other hand, graffiti can be viewed as creative expression, not to mention its usual link to politics. Main Types of Graffiti Art The main types of graffiti fall into different categories and have their own names which are recognized in cities all over the world. First is â€Å"Hip Hop Graffiti†. This is characterized by ‘pieces’ which hip hop graffitists create by aerosol spray paints. They are large and colorful works, usually including either a complex mix of letters or a cartoon-style picture. This type of graffiti often lacks much thought and planning in design and usually takes an extended period of time. Second is the â€Å"Opportunistic Graffiti† which location is selected impulsively, on the basis of low risk and low natural surveillance. Graffitists of this type usually use â€Å"tags† or â€Å"scrawling† to mark their territory. Third type is the â€Å"Gang Graffiti†. Gang graffiti is not art work but a sophisticated communication to publicize gang power, status, and territory. This type is somehow related to opportunistic graffitists because they also use â€Å"tags† or â€Å"scrawling† to mark territory. But in addition to this, gangs use graffiti to create notoriety or show off their defiance of the law and society, and as a mode of marking their presence. The fourth, the â€Å"Political & Social Graffiti† is obviously of racial or political motivation. This is uncommonly regarded as part of the graffiti subculture, although it is recognized as damaging to property. The last type is the â€Å"Commercial Graffiti† which is an emerging civic problem. This involves huge compensations paid by private organizations to graffitists to spray advertising logos onto walkways and buildings for promotions of their products. This type is an illegal form of advertising that avoids normal planning laws. (Stowers 1997, pp. 1-2) Gang Graffiti: The Most Dangerous Graffiti The gang graffiti is the most controversial not just because of the characters of its writings but because of its social impact in the neighborhood. Gang graffiti is an indication of gang presence in the community. Gangs use graffiti as their â€Å"newspapers,† thus they usually call it â€Å"newspaper in the wall† as gangs use them to send messages. This is their way of marking boundaries and warning rival gangs. Graffiti may also be an instrument to advertise drug market or, as a memorial to a killed gang member. Symbols and cryptic writing style is exclusive in each gang. Death warrants and beat downs are known to be posted in graffiti. Upside down or crossed out graffiti generally means a put down or threat to a rival gang or person. (Bland and Read 2000) According to Michael Carlie (2002), graffiti is the most common method of gang communication and a major symbolism of their gang affiliation. Jonathan Kellerman (1994) as cited by Carlie referred to graffiti as â€Å"the hieroglyphics of rage† because of the violence associated with it. On the surface, a person who is not familiar with it might think of graffiti as a simple nonsense painting on the wall or in poles or elsewhere, or just a plain vandal. Carlie adds that among other things, graffiti communicates the â€Å"role call† or the roster of gang members, or the hierarchy of gang members. It also implies who’s around, who’s with who, who’s disrespecting who, which gangs are claiming what territory and which areas are in dispute. It may be an announcement of current gang activities and who’s getting ready to attack who, or who’s already been killed. A familiar language, for example, is the â€Å"X† which if marked on a member’s name means he is the likely target for an attack or murder. (Carlie 2002, pp. 2) An important not on gang graffiti is, in many ways, it is a code and codes in general are subjects to analysis. Deciphering gang graffiti requires the understanding of the symbols, abbreviations, structure, that composes the gang language. In the United States, gang graffiti is usually based on two dominant styles – the L. A. and Chicago styles – which vary greatly and influence to some degree across the country. Some gangs use an exclusive style while others use a combination. For example, the Gangster Disciples originated in south-side of Chicago might combine L. A. style gang lettering with Chicago Folks Nation symbols. In New York, Latin Kings might use Chicago Latin King symbols but with New York tagger style graffiti lettering. (Graffiti†¦ 2010) These styles and some of the variations are seen throughout the country and a person who understands both styles is more likely to understand most, if not all, gang graffiti. Characters of gang related graffiti has sharp, angular stick letters, or mostly contains religious, even â€Å"satanic† imagery, or is done in one color of paint. Most of the times they are very simple and flat-out which make them easy to figure out. But no matter how simple they appear, it still requires some basic code-breaking skills. (Deciphering Gang†¦2010. p. 1) Figure 1: â€Å"WS 18 St, HGS† – West Side Eighteenth Street (gang), Hoover Gangsters (a clique of 18th Street) Two-digit numbers, especially â€Å"13? , â€Å"14? , or â€Å"18? , signifies graffiti for a hispanic gang while three digits, especially if they are the area code of your neighborhood, it’s almost certainly not a hispanic gang, but a typical prison or street sort. Exception to this is numbers followed by â€Å"K† which means a threat from a rival gang. â€Å"WS18? (figure 1) is a tag for the (hispanic) West Side 18th Street gang out of California. â€Å"WS18K† means a threat towards 18th Street by a local gang. Note that â€Å"K† is short for â€Å"Kill†. If there are two digits, see if they’re prefixed by â€Å"N†, â€Å"S†, â€Å"E†, or â€Å"W† – (or â€Å"NS†, â€Å"SS†, â€Å"ES†, or â€Å"WS†) – which relate to the cardinal directions, and form part of the gang’s identity. Hispanic gangs more often use 13 and 14 – the 13th letter of the alphabet is â€Å"M†, which generally stands for â€Å"Mexico† or â€Å"La Eme†, the Mexican Mafia and the 14th letter â€Å"N† generally means â€Å"North† that symbolizes which end of California the gang originated from. It is a division as gangstas from the north and south parts of California frequently clash. Figure 2: â€Å"Lil Capone WS VSLC, crossed out BK, Crossed out PBGK† – Lil Capone (name of gang member) West Side Venice Shoreline Crips, Blood Killer, Playboy Gangster Killer (disrespect to rival gangs) Certain patterns appear without the numbers. As always, â€Å"K† is a threat to â€Å"(K)ill†, as are any crossed-out letters. â€Å"A† as in â€Å"Almighty† â€Å"N†, that virtually stands for â€Å"Nation† can be safely ignored. When seen together, which usually occurs, it show up that the gangs used to calling themselves the Almighty Whatever Nation. Figure 3: â€Å"GD around Star of David with number six inside the star, pitchfork extending from the D† – Gangsters Disciples with six point star representing GDs and Folks. Pitchford represents GD’s and Folks Gangs which are known in the country carry a finite code which makes them easy to identify. â€Å"GD† is the Gangster Disciples and â€Å"VL† are the Vice Lords. â€Å"LK† are the Latin Kings, and â€Å"LQ† the Latin Queens; sometimes when they’re getting along, they’re the LKQ – Latin Kings and Queens. Crossed-out letters in gang graffiti usually mean a threat. Letters â€Å"B†, â€Å"C†, â€Å"F†, â€Å"P†, or â€Å"S† crossed-out in a piece of gang graffiti, it signifies a threat towards a gang whose name, â€Å"nation†, or nickname begins with that crossed out letter. In the Vice Lord tag, the letter â€Å"C† is not crossed out which tells you the local Vice Lords don’t have complaints with the (C)rips. Gangs should write very carefully because all too often, little slights in graffiti like crossing out letters, or painting over rival gangs’ tags, are a sure warning sign of impending gang war. Figure 4: â€Å"CVLN† – Conservative Vice Lords Nation. Cane extending from the â€Å"L† is a CVL symbol. Upside down pitchfork shows disrespect towards Fold Nation gangs. Knowledge in deciphering gang graffiti introduced you to a neighborhood of gangs. In (figure 4) the â€Å"C† is short for â€Å"Conservative†. The â€Å"Conservative Vice Lords† are one of several dozen larger Vice Lord â€Å"sets† around United States. Some communities have taken a massive campaign against graffiti and also intensifies gang reduction. In Florida, the Florida Department of Corrections website posts information to help educate the public in reducing gang activities, which imposes threat to the community. Some gangs, the website says, even use graffiti as ‘Death warrants’ to authorities specifically to police officers. Community awareness program in most part of America uses the 4 R’s of graffiti to intensify campaign against gangs and gang graffiti. The slogan says, â€Å"READ IT, RECORD IT, REPORT IT & REMOVE IT†. (Deciphering Gang†¦2010, p. 1) Thus, citizens should read it and report it to police, and police will record it and then remove it. These steps are important but the removal of the graffiti is the most risky. Removal of graffiti manifests the neighborhood’s refusal to be dominated or intimidated by gangs which is a language most gang members understand. Neighborhood residents who ignore graffiti and bother not to remove them are viewed as frightened and weak by the gangs who made them. At the worst, there are instances that gang members attack people who attempt to remove or cover their graffiti. Gang graffiti is the most dangerous of all graffiti and can usually be found around community rail stations. It marks territory and rival gangs usually challenge for territory by crossing out another gang’s graffiti. It imposes real and great danger to the residents. Messages in graffiti are taken seriously by gangsters and the longer graffiti is, the greater the risk that the threats will be acted on. Graffiti is a gateway crime and membership in gangs certainly guarantees a criminal record. Since juvenile of minor age receives more lenience when it comes to punishment, the minors are the usual target of recruitment and the doer of crimes. Residents Against Graffiti Everywhere (RAGE) is a community group that looks at social issues and works with local councils and Governments towards promoting a zero tolerance policy on graffiti. (Bland and Read 2000, p. 179) By legal definition, graffiti is vandalism. It is the unauthorized application of markings on someone else’s property, especially without permission. Therefore, legality wise it is a crime. The manner that graffiti is regularly produced as illegal detracts it from the concept to be considered an art form. Very unfortunately that graffiti is responded with outrage over the abuse of someone’s property. This negative connotation may take away the value or impact of the artist’s original message. Perhaps, it would be better to get permission from the owner of the â€Å"canvas† to display the art. Yet, graffiti still elicits emotional response even in its illegal state. Furthermore, it is composed of lines, shapes, color, tones, and forms in a display that conveys a certain message and elicits an emotion. Therefore, it is safe to say that graffiti is indeed an art. As George Stowers (1997) presented four criteria as basis that some forms of graffiti become a work of art. First, the artist’s intention to produce a work of art separates graffiti art from everyday graffiti markings. Second, graffiti art established a history of development in style and technique. Third, the art world has already recognized graffiti as an art form. Fourth is the public response to graffiti art indicates that it is art. Regardless of the message it conveys, the fact that graffiti carry the aesthetic and creative symbolism and expression, public agrees that graffiti is a form of art. Like other art forms, graffiti art is a definite art when both the artist and the audience agree on the works ability to provide maximal aesthetic satisfaction. Graffiti is presently known as spray can art which is a form indeed recognized as art. It has form, color, and other base properties as any other art pieces. It also has as an arrangement of these elements into structures that qualify it aesthetically as being art. However, something that is done with spray paint might make it graffiti, but not necessarily qualify as art or graffiti art. Location and presentation still are the factors that hinder the general acceptance of graffiti art. However, the instances that the art world’s acceptance of graffiti art shows that conventional methods of presentation are not all that matters in determining graffiti as an art. Graffiti in the form of spray can art is art like any other work that might be found in a gallery or a museum. References Bland, N. & Read, T. (2000). Policing Anti-social Behaviour. Police Research Series 123, Policing and Reducing Crime, British Home Office, London, UK. Carlie, Michael. (2002) Graffiti and Other Gang Identifiers. (Into the Abyss: A Personal Journey into the World of Street Gangs) Retrieved 23 May 2010 from . Deciphering Gang Graffiti (2008). The Slugsite. com. Retrieved 23 May 2010 from . Graffiti. (2007) The Huntfor. com retrieved 23 May 2010 from .

Grace Abbott The Mother of Americas Forty-Three Million...

From the humble beginning of Social Work there have been many people who have tirelessly worked, fought, and dedicated their life advocating for the people in our world who are disadvantaged. Furthermore, many of these people have been women who not only were strong enough to fight for the rights of others, but also had to fight the forces whom thought that women where in some way second hand citizens themselves. These women were brave and determined enough to break out of the box that society placed them in, and stand up for the social injustices that they seen taking place, and try to make a difference. Of the many women from the early days of Social Work none fought harder for social reform than Grace Abbott. Grace Abbott spent her life†¦show more content†¦Grace graduated college in 1898 from Grand Island College, and then worked as a High School teacher in her hometown. In 1902 Grace began her graduate studies at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Grace eventually obta ined her PhD in political science from the University of Chicago in 1909. Grace grew up in an era when women were fighting for their own rights through the women’s suffrage movement. Grace had already realized she wanted to do more than teach on the prairies of the Midwest. She would be exposed to even more injustices when she chose to leave the prairies of Nebraska and travel to Chicago with her sister Edith. In 1908 Grace moved in to Jane Adam’s Hull House which served as a settlement house for the poor, furthermore, Hull house was a place where dedicated and active women worked toward social reform, including the areas of the early feminist movement. This is when Grace began becoming interested in Social Work, which would eventually become her life’s work. Grace spent much of her life in the poorest and depressed area of Chicago’s urban city. Grace was faced with many challenges through her life which included trying to change society’s percepti on of child labor, maternity law, immigrants’ protection, state’s responsibilities to their people, and expanding women’s role in our government. By the time Grace would finish her challenging work she was held in high esteem. Franklin Delano Roosevelt recounted her career asShow MoreRelatedFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesSenior Production Editor. Others deserving special mention for their contributions are Brenda Moorehead and RaeAnn Guns. Last, we want to acknowledge a few people individually. From Dave: To my wife, Terri, for all her support and love. And to my children— Mark, Meredith, Gabriella, and Natalie—thank you for all you do. You continue to be the â€Å"light of my life.† From Steve: To Laura for all that she brings to my life. From Susan: To my husband John, my daughter Katie, and my Mom. Thanks for yourRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesnew initiatives and new management reverse a decline? KPMG (A) – managing change in professional services. Xerox – difficulties with leadership at the global giant. UNHCR – managing change in a global not-for-profit organisation. Burtons (A,B,C) – three stages of a retailer’s development under different leaders. Key: ââ€" Ã¢â€"  = major focus ââ€"  = important subsidiary focus Introduction to strategy Business environment: general Five forces analysis Capability analysis Corporate governance Stakeholder expectationsRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesof Power 283 Abuse of Power 285 Strategies for Gaining Organizational Power 286 The Necessity of Power and Empowerment 286 Sources of Personal Power 288 Sources of Positional Power 293 Transforming Power into Influence 298 Influence Strategies: The Three Rs 298 The Pros and Cons of Each Strategy 300 Acting Assertively: Neutralizing Influence Attempts 304 SKILL ANALYSIS 310 Case Involving Power and Influence 310 River Woods Plant Manager 310 SKILL PRACTICE 311 Exercise for Gaining Power 311 Repairing

The Relationship Between Media And Societal Institutions...

Mediatisation is a relatively new and complicated concept useful for discussing the relationship between media and societal institutions including politics, and religion. This essay will examine the way in which the Christian Faith has interacted with media in the past and how the process of Mediatisation has influenced it at present by looking at various implications. Firstly, this essay will define Mediatisation and examine a brief history of the relationship between media culture and religion, secondly, it will argue how religious authority and education have been reconstructed due to Mediatisation. Thirdly it will discuss the role of ‘religious’ individuals in a mediatised world and the new form of religiosity that only a process of Mediatisation could create. Finally, this essay will look to Mediatisation and its relationship to secularisation parallel. Overall, this essay will argue that while religion, in the past has used media as a tool to communicate particula r values and aid in the process of identity construction and framing, now the media, through the process of Mediatisation has become its own, autonomous institution with the power to reframe religious positions and ideas creating a new form of religiosity influenced primarily by media rather than religious institutions. As Mediatisation is key to this essay, it is important to define the concept in order to elaborate on its implications on religious institutions. Mediatisation is a new theoreticalShow MoreRelatedEssay on what is the sociological perspective (imagination)691 Words   |  3 Pagesdefines perspective as â€Å"the capacity to view things in their true relations or relative importance†. Having a sociological perspective means that you view all of societies components and their relationship to the individual. First I will discuss how individuals are socialized. 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Wright Mills defined sociological perspective as the ability to â€Å"think yourself away from the familiar routines of everyday life† and â€Å"the vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and the wider society.† He explained the difference between personal and social issues. For example, if a man is looking for employment and is not hired this will become a personal failure, but at the moment, this same man stands at the unemployment line and realize

Sexual Harassment At The Workplace - 1253 Words

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace What cause sexual harassment in the workplace? Sexual harassment is defined as discrimination towards sex. It is unwanted verbal and/or physical contact between two human beings, however, in this case I would like to focus on the workplace (co-worker or supervisor). Based on Civil Rights Act of 1991, there has been an increased amount of incentives for employer’s prohibition conducts of sexual harassment. How people perceive and evaluate sexual harassment has also been independently studied (O’Connor et al., 2004; York, 1989; Wiener et al., 1997, 2004). Although, scientists socially begun to question whether responses to sexual harassment claims may actually be influenced by a prior workplace†¦show more content†¦Demonstration Moral Reasoning One of the most common acts in the workplace is an issue with sexual harassment. This type of behavior is insidious to tackle simply because there are victims that are more than likely put in a position where they may be scared of the consequences that may follow behind coming out about being harassed. With thoughts that it might damage their reputation. Morally, sexual harassment does not give anyone the â€Å"right† to act in such manner. This bad behavior and is frown upon. Yet, when fractionization lead to romance in the workplace all hell can break loose especially if things go sour. In the workplace, there should be anti-francization policy that covers all employer’s. Employers are there to accomplish a duty and not get caught up with issues such sexual harassment that can not only draw attention to the business, but also bring down morale for all others. It is unethical behavior that has a role of moral intensity. Kant, (cited in Hoffman Frederick, 1995) argues that all mature persons have the capacity to reason, and these rules can be applied to everyone. Though, Kant stresses the importance of acting on principle and from a sense of duty (Shaw Barry, 2000), typically an obligation (morally) to help guide the behavior. However, the EEOC of the U.S. (InteractiveShow MoreRelatedSexual Harassment At The Workplace1697 Words   |  7 PagesSexual Harassment in the Workplace Eva L. Mendez-Zacher MG260, Business Law I 28 September 2014 Dr. Anita Whitby Abstract I’m conducting a study on Sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment is possible in all social and economic classes, ethnic groups, jobs and places in the community. Through this study I hope to clarify the common misconception that sexual harassment is an isolated female problem. Although the majority of the cases reported are in fact male on femaleRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace990 Words   |  4 PagesIt is great to have a workplace where you are friends with your coworkers. But what happens when coworkers talk about other coworkers in a sexual context. 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In this researchRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1396 Words   |  6 PagesEssay #3 Sexual harassment in the workplace has always been an issue, even before women were introduced into the working environment in the twentieth century. In recent years this issue may have become more publicized than before and not as overlooked as it used to be, but it unfortunately affects people all across the nation, both men and women alike. From that fast food chain where your kid is working at, to that fortune 500 company you’ve never heard of, it is happening. Over the last severalRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace2180 Words   |  9 PagesSexual harassment is among the many factors that make employees uncomfortable at the workplace. This vice is a sum of all the unwelcomed advances of sexual nature that employees go through from their colleagues or superiors. 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It can affect your working conditions and creates a hostile work environment. It can also affect productivity, satisfaction, retention, patient care and safety, your physical well-being and mental health. It can also cause low staff morale, increased absenteeism and attrition of staff. This studentRead MoreSexual Harassment And The Workplace1608 Words   |  7 Pagessubject to sexual harassment ranging from sexually degrading comments to physical acts of sexual assault. Unfortunately for the women working at the mine, that was only the beginning of the harassment they’d experience. If this was not damaging enough, women were deterred, if not, outright sanctioned for reporting instances of harassment to management. It is reasonable to assume that culture at Pearson Taconite and Steel fostered a hostile work environment for women. Though the issue of sexual harassmentRead MoreSexual Harassment At The Workplace1697 Words   |  7 Pages Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Eva L. Mendez-Zacher MG260, Business Law I 28 September 2014 Dr. Anita Whitby Abstract I’m conducting a study on Sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment is possible in all social and economic classes, ethnic groups, jobs and places in the community. Through this study I hope to clarify the common misconception that sexual harassment is an isolated female problem. Although the majority of the cases reported are in fact male on female

Principles of Management - Health Economics and Health Policy

Question: Discuss about the Principles of Management, Health Economic and Health Policy. Answer: Introduction Cost-Utility Analysis (CUA) refers to the cost of the utilities required for a quality life. Although the term is controversial in the sense that the quality of life or health status of a person cannot be measured in terms of monetary benefits yet it is used to measure outcomes of studies of different interventions. (Elseviers et al., 2016). CUA is generally used to compare the economic benefits of different drug regimens or it can even be used to compare two surgical procedures. It is measure in terms of Quality-Adjusted Life Year (QALY). The study of CUA envisages the relative effectiveness as well as the safety of a drug regimen and or surgery. It can also be used to analyse the budget impact of health care policies of a nation. Moreover, CUA can be used to aid in the implementation of diverse health care initiatives. Review of past literatures in Malaysia shows that the decisions concerning implementation of health care initiatives are made without transparent criteria.(Shafie et al., 2014). The present study intends to delve into the CUA of pharmaceutical intervention on diabetes and obesity. According to the Institute of Public Health, Malaysia the prevalence of diabetes mellitus among adults is 17.5%. (Institute for Public Health (IPH) 2015). The highest prevalence of diabetes mellitus was found in the state of Kedah (25.4%) and the lowest incidence had been at Sabah and Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan (14.2%). Similarly the study carried out by Institute for Public Health (2015) showed that there was an average prevalence of overweight to the tune of 33.4%. The study also showed that the incidence of obesity in urban population was significantly more than rural population. In addition according to the report obesity in males is significantly more than females. The report published by the Institute for Public Health (2015) is the basis for our present study. What is the CUA of pharmaceutical intervention on diabetes mellitus in Malaysia? Method To investigate the CUA of the ailment chosen was diabetes. According to Institute for Public Health (2012) diabetes along with high cholesterol as well as high BMI was the largest contributor of deaths and disability adjusted life-years (DALY). Medical Terminology Anatomy for ICD-10 Coding (2014) refers Diabetes as a group of metabolic diseases which causes high glucose levels with decrease in amounts of insulin (Shiland, 2014). Diabetes is usually managed through the changes in lifestyle Medications, and or support. Lifestyles changes usually require change in dietary habitats and exercise. Diabetes mellitus or Type 2 Diabetes as it is usually known as is caused due to the metabolic defects of insulin resistance as well as reduction in insulin secretion cells by the pancreatic b-cells (Umpierrez, 2014). The glycemic concentration in blood is usually controlled through the use of oral medications. Oral drug therapies includes Metformin, gliclazide glibenclamide and a host of other medications. Metformin has been strongly recommended for type 2 diabetes (Qaseem et al., 2012). The American College of Physicians strongly recommends the use of drugs in combination with Metformin. In a comparative study it has been found that Glicazide and Metformin are equally effective in Glycemic controlling especially in newly diagnosed patients (Erem et al., 2014). The study by Erem et al. was carried out on newly diagnosed 57 patients for one year. It was a controlled clinical study. The factors under study were the blood glucose levels (both fasting and post-prandial), HbA1c, blood insulin levels, lipid parameters and other parameters usually measured during diabetes. For both the pharmaceutical oral dosage regimens of Gliclazide-MR and Metformin it was that they substantially effective in reducing the Glycemic level from the baseline. The present study analysis the CUA of using Gliclazide along with Metformin against the use of Pre-Combined Glibenclamide-Metformin Tablets in the control Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Quality Adjusted life years or simply referred to as the QALYS can be considered to be an important dimension for measurement of disease burden after incorporation of quality as well as quantity of life experienced by the people of the nation (Chakraborty and Das, 2016). The cost effectiveness ratio can be regarded as an important dimension that help in the process of representation of the cost for per unit of QALY. However, the basic formula that can be utilized for enumeration of the cost per QALY can be reflected as (Cost per QALY= Cost of specific intervention/QALY gained). In particular, the net cost of intervention can be regarded as the costs of diverse intervention program that is enumerated less savings attained for the process of treatment costs as an outcome of the decreased morbidity owing to execution of the program. Again, the QALY acquired is specifically equivalent to the gain in the overall QALY as an outcome of QALY as a consequence of decrease in the number of inci dence otherwise mortality owing to the intervention. Nevertheless, there are essentially two different ratios for calculation of cost effectiveness that again can be related to the overall net costs borne for the intervention to the overall gain in the specifically QALY owing to the intervention (Nanditha et al., 2016). Ellulu et al. (2014) suggests that the incremental cost effectiveness ratio can be associated to the incremental net cost of the specific intervention to the incremental gain in the overall QALY. However, different rules can be framed by associating the data related to costs as well as effectiveness that in turn can help in calculation of cost per QALY. This process takes into consideration the cost savings, cost effectiveness as well as very cost effectiveness of an intervention. Particularly, cost savings refers to the yields from real savings in addition to contributing supplementary QALY. In case of very cost effective intervention, the cost for every QALY is essentially less than the per capita GNP. Again, the cost effective intervention has the cost per QALY that is necessarily thrice the per capita GNP (Ellulu et al., 2014). Effectiveness A study was done to access the benefits of the use of pre-combined Glibenclamide-Metformin tablets against Gliclazide with Metformin for the administration of Type-2 diabetes mellitus at the endocrine clinic at Penang Hospital (Lim et al., 2012). Eighty patients with an average of 55 years were considered for study. Glycemic level was measured with HbA1c. After a study period of six months it was found that there was reduction of 8% from the baseline. The study showed that there was also a significant decrease in the treatment cost from 45% for three months to 44% for 6 months. Costs Cost effectiveness of the use of combination of Gliclazide and Metformin against pre-combination of Glibenclamide-metformin was analysed according to the estimated population data (Institute for Public Health, 2015). According to the consumer price guide of 2015 the price of Pre-combined Glibenclamide-Metformin combination costs RM 0.88/tablet. Similarly The price of Gliclazide-MR is RM0.67/tablet and that of Metformin is RM 0.05/tablet (Ministry of Health Malaysia. Private sector medicines retail price list, 2015). Results The dose of Pre-combined Glibenclamide-Metformin combination costs RM 0.88/tablet was only one tablet per day while that of Gliclazide is one tablet per day and that of Metformin was two tablets per day. Hence from the cost analysis we find that there is a cost benefit is giving a dose of Gliclazide-MR and Metformin as against pre-combination of Glibenclamide and Metformin. The total benefits would be in the tune of RM 388278.66 for an estimated population of 3529806 for the whole of Malaysia (Appendix). According to a study done by (de Len-Castaeda et al., 2012) the CE ratio of Metformin is US$296.48/QALY while that of Glibenclamide, US$272.63/QALY. Conversion to MYR shows that Metformin MYR1316.37/QALY and that of Glibenclamide is 1210.72/QALY ($1 = 4.44MYR). According to (Health Technology Assessment, 2017) Gliclazide has 2106/QALY or MYR 11584.88/QALY (1 = 5.5MYR). Thus it can be seen that a combination of Glibenclamide and Metformin will yield a better QALY as compared to that of Gliclazide with metformin. Hence there is an overall efficacy in the use of combination of Glibenclamide and Metformin than the use of Gliclazide and Metformin. Discussion The study provides with a CUA of management of type 2 diabetes using a cheaper combination of drug. Secondary data was used for the study and a probable CUA was calculated. This CUA can be beneficial for the government in providing health benefits for patients suffering from type 2 diabetes and dependent on health initiatives by the Malaysian government. The calculations of QALY show that there are economic benefits in using a combination of Glibenclamide and Metformin. The assessment is based on studies done in USA and UK. With the prevalence of Diabetes in the Malaysian population a combination dose would be effective in control the disease. Consequences A CUA of a cheaper combination of drug for the management of type 2 diabetes was envisaged based on previous studies. A comparative analysis of the combinations of drugs regarding their efficacy was provided and thus the economic benefits were calculated. Limitations The limitations of the present research are: Only two pharmaceutical dosage regimens were considered for the study. There are many other formulations which can be studied. The dosage regimens / formulations to be given to a patient depends on the age the patient, his Glycemic level as well the control of Glucose. The extent of CUA can be analysed only when patients are segregated on the basis of age and formulations. The present study was based on secondary data. A study based on primary data would provide a better evaluation of CUA. Assumptions The assumptions for the report were that the population percentage of patients having diabetes has not changed from 2015 to the present date. Moreover in the report of Institute for Public Health, 2015 an estimate of the population of diabetes patients was done. In addition the cost of the pharmaceutical formulations was taken from the Consumer Price Guide (2015). In the study it was assumed that patients taking a combination of Gliclazide and Metformin would switch to Pre-combination of Glibenclamide and Metformin. Data constraints The study was based on use of secondary data of 2015. Thus there is a margin of error for the present study. Moreover since the population is an estimated population actual cost benefits are not available. References Chakraborty, C., Das, S., 2016. Dynamics of Diabetes and Obesity: An Alarming Situation in the Developing Countries in Asia. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 16, 12581268. Ellulu, M., Abed, Y., Rahmat, A., Ranneh, Y., Ali, F., 2014. Epidemiology of obesity in developing countries: challenges and prevention. Glob. Epidemic Obes. 2, 2. Elseviers, M., Andersen, M., Wettermark, B., Benko, R., Almarsd?ttir, A.B., Bennie, M., Godman, B., Vander Stichele, R., Krska, J., Eriksson, I., others, 2016. Drug Utilization Research: Methods and Applications. Wiley. Erem, C., Ozbas, H., Nuhoglu, I., Deger, O., Civan, N., Ersoz, H., 2014. Comparison of effects of gliclazide, metformin and pioglitazone monotherapies on glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in patients with newly diagnosed uncontrolled type 2 diabetes mellitus. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 122, 295302. Health Technology Assessment (No. VOLUME 21 ISSUE 2), 2017. . National Institute of Health Research. Institute for Public Health (IPH) 2015., n.d. , National Health and Morbidity Survey 2015 (NHMS 2015). Vol. II: Non-Communicable Diseases, Risk Factors Other Health Problems; 2015. Lim, P., Lim, S., Oiyammaal, C., 2012. Glycaemic control and cost analysis when changing from gliclazide co-administered with metformin to pre-combined glibenclamide-metformin tablets in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Med. J. Malaysia 67, 2124. Ministry of Health Malaysia. Private sector medicines retail price list 2015, n.d. , A report of Pharmaceutical Services Division,. Nanditha, A., Ma, R.C., Ramachandran, A., Snehalatha, C., Chan, J.C., Chia, K.S., Shaw, J.E., Zimmet, P.Z., 2016. Diabetes in Asia and the Pacific: implications for the global epidemic. Diabetes Care 39, 472485. Shafie, A.A., Lim, Y.W., Chua, G.N., Hassali, M.A.A., 2014. Exploring the willingness to pay for a quality-adjusted life-year in the state of Penang, Malaysia. Clin. Outcomes Res. CEOR 6, 473. Shiland, B.J., 2014. Medical Terminology Anatomy for ICD-10 Coding, 2nd ed. Elsevier Health Sciences. Umpierrez, G., 2014. Therapy for Diabetes Mellitus and Related Disorders, 2014. American Diabetes Association.

The Scarlet Letter Analysis of Arthur Dimmesdale Essay Example For Students

The Scarlet Letter Analysis of Arthur Dimmesdale Essay Character Analysis of Arthur DimmesdaleThe Scarlet Letter is a story of characters that have to live and deal with theeffects of sin in different ways. Of these characters, the Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale isthe character portrayed as the most weak and unnoble. Despite this portrayalDimmesdale was a stronger character than given credit for. His unbelievable amount ofcontrol in his way of handling his burdens displays his great sense of strength andintellect. We first see Dimmesdale portrayed as a nervous and sensitive individual. Despitehis outer appearance, inside Dimmesdale is a very stable, strong person. Chapter Threestates that he showed, nervous sensibility and a vast power of self restraint. While thisseems to give Dimmesdale great strength, it is also his largest flaw. His body refuses todo what his heart says is right. Dimmesdale instructs Hester to reveal the truth, but whenshe refuses he doesnt have the willpower to confess himself. Therefore, his sin becomeseven larger than hers, because while hers is an exposed sin. He continues to lie tohimself and his followers by keeping his secret hidden, so his is a concealed sin. HereHawthorne shows us just how strong Dimmesdale actually is, by allowing him to hide hissin and bear the weight of it, he creates an extremely interesting and tremendously strongcharacter. We will write a custom essay on The Scarlet Letter Analysis of Arthur Dimmesdale specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The scaffold is the place that Dimmesdale shows the amount of pain andself-loathing he is truly capable of concealing. He realizes that he is as much at fault forHesters torment as any common villager, if not even more so. Seven years prior, Hesterstood in this place and took the punishment for both of them while he quietly stood asideand led people to believe that he also condemned her. During those long seven years hemade no move to lessen her load or his own. Now Dimmesdale has had all that he canbear and lets out a yell that draws the attention of fellow villagers. He curses himself forhis silence and cowardice. On the scaffold in the chapter 23 the true sign of strength ids revealed. To admithe is wrong takes strength, but the way that he held in his sin thus committing two, one ofthe original sin, and two of the concealment, then confessing after years of frustratingcowardice takes a stronger man. This confession also in front of his loyal followers, whohad stood by him without a clue of his guilt. His demise was from the drain of his willwhich was worn and lacking. Dimmesdale was not courageous in his actions in the story but strong. He wasable to carry the burdens, frustration , and pain throughout his life. Whether he wasgood, brave, or right in what he did is to remain unseen but the fact that he was strong iscertain. ————————————————————–